( Royal Society of Chemistry, 2015), Chap. Forbes, in Materials Challenges: Inorganic Photovoltaic Solar Energy, 1st ed. Rather than seeking entirely new systems, one approach is to adapt presently successful systems (such as CIGS) by replacing problem elements. All this drives research into earth-abundant and non-toxic absorber materials with desirable properties for thin-film PV: strong optical absorption with an optimal band gap, limited non-radiative recombination, and favorable carrier dynamics. Durose, in Photovoltaic Specialist Conference (PVSC) ( IEEE, 2014), p. and concerns remain over cadmium toxicity. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2016 (U.S. USGS estimated global Si, Ga, In and Te production in 2015 was as follows: 8100000, 600, 755 and 120 t.

indium and tellurium (particularly) are scarce with limited geographical availability, 5 5. Tellurium, gallium, and indium are relatively expensive, 4 4. of the multi-terawatt PV market envisaged by 2050. Yet the leading technologies for thin-film photovoltaics, cadmium telluride (CdTe) and copper indium gallium diselenide, Cu(In, Ga)Se 2 (or CIGS), each have commercial limitations which complicate increasing total installed capacity beyond 100 GWp, just a fraction 2 2. a)Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed: and.8 Diamond Light Source Ltd., Diamond House, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot OX11 0DE, United Kingdom.7 Department of Electrical Engineering and Electronics, University of Liverpool, Brownlow Hill, Liverpool L69 3GJ, United Kingdom.

6 National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Material Science Center, Denver West Parkway, Golden, Colorado 80401, USA.

5 Institute of Experimental Physics, Wroclaw University of Technology, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland.

4 Department of Electronic Systems, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NO-7491 Trondheim, Norway.

3 Thomas Young Centre, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom.

2 Department of Chemistry, University College London, Christopher Ingold Building, London WC1H 0AJ, United Kingdom.

1 Stephenson Institute for Renewable Energy, Department of Physics, Liverpool L69 7ZF, United Kingdom.

Including both indicators in European redistribution makes for a better representation of the initial burden of carbon pricing and could increase public acceptability. The first renders the tax burden proportional the second focuses on compensating the households most severely affected. We offer two indicators to offset regressive distributional effects of EU climate policy, such as the recently proposed Green Deal. While national redistribution can yield a progressive EU incidence, we show that European-wide redistribution is more effective for the most affected households. At an aggregate EU level, however, the impact is regressive because some low-income countries would be strongly affected by the carbon price. At the national level, the distributional impact before revenue recycling is mainly neutral, sometimes progressive. We examine how a European carbon price will affect citizens by studying its incidence on households in 23 countries of the EU.

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